The Roman Republic, still reeling from the assassination of Julius Caesar the previous year, faced another constitutional crisis in the summer of 43 BC. Caesar’s designated heir—his great-nephew Gaius Octavius, now calling himself Caesar—was only nineteen years old. Yet by August 19 of that…
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On August 1, 30 BC, a defining moment in ancient history unfolded as Octavian, the future Augustus Caesar, conquered the city of Alexandria. This conquest marked the culmination of a power struggle that would reshape the Roman Empire and influence the course of Western…
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The Battle of Actium, fought on September 2, 31 BC, was a decisive naval confrontation that marked the culmination of the power struggle between Octavian (later Augustus, the first Roman Emperor) and the combined forces of Mark Antony and Cleopatra VII of Egypt. This…
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